Friday Feature: The Negritude Movement

Négritude is a literary and ideological movement, developed by francophone black intellectuals, writers, and politicians in France in the 1930s. Its founders included the future Senegalese President Léopold Sédar Senghor, Martinican poet Aimé Césaire, and the Guianan Léon Damas. The word négritude derives from the French word "Nègre" and literally means "negro-ness."

The Négritude writers found solidarity in a common black identity as a rejection of French colonial racism. They believed that the shared black heritage of members of the African diaspora was the best tool in fighting against French political and intellectual hegemony and domination. They formed a realistic literary style and formulated their Marxist ideas as part of this movement.

Negritude responded to the alienated position of blacks in history. The movement asserted an identity for black people around the world that was their own. For Césaire and Damas, from Martinique and French Guiana, the rupture from Africa through the Atlantic Slave Trade was a great part of their cultural understanding. Their work told of the frustration and loss of their motherland. For Senegalese Senghor, his works focused more on African traditionalism. In ways the assertion of each poet diverges from each other, but the combination of different perspectives is also what fueled and fed Negritude. From a political standpoint, Negritude was an important aspect to the rejection of colonialism. Emerging at the cusp of African independence movements, Negritude made an impact on how the colonized viewed themselves. It also sparked and fed off of subsequent literary movements that were responding to global politics.

The term négritude (which most closely means "blackness" in English) then was first used in 1935 by Aimé Césaire, in the third issue of L'Étudiant noir, a magazine which he had started in Paris with fellow students Léopold Senghor and Léon Damas, as well as Gilbert Gratiant, Leonard Sainville, Louis T. Achille, Aristide Maugée, and Paulette Nardal. L'Étudiant noiralso contains Césaire's first published work, "Conscience Raciale et Révolution Sociale" under the heading "Les Idées" and the rubric "Negreries," which is notable for its disavowal of assimilation as a valid strategy for resistance and for its reclamation of the word "nègre" as a positive term. "Nègre" previously had been almost exclusively used in a pejorative sense, much like the English word "nigger". Césaire deliberately and proudly incorporated this derogatory word into the name of his movement.

Poet and the later first president of Sénégal, Senghor used la Négritude to work toward a universal valuation of African people. He advocated a modern incorporation of the expression and celebration of traditional African customs and ideas. This interpretation of la Négritude tended to be the most common, particularly in later years.

There is no clear end date to the movement, and some literary critics say that it still continues today, in any artistic expression asserting black identity.

This information was accessed on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude on 14 November 2014.

Friday Feature: 3rd Annual Steve Biko Memorial Lecture, Europe

Hugh Masekela Delivers the Lecture at LSE

Diamond Biko

By Hugh Masekela

Bantu Biko’s life was yanked from us as brutally as was that of Lumumba, of Sobukwe, of Makana, of the Mxenges, of Sharpeville, of the children of 1976 and millions of people of the continent of Africa for whom there is nary a plague anywhere.

But Bantu Biko’s ideals, his dream refuses to fade, his legacy says “no” to the death sentence through constant torture and assault that was suffered upon his being.The time is indeed emerging again, where African people will strive to revive the constant visibility of their heritage.  We will create academies where we will be enabled once more to learn our languages, where We will be taught the songs of out great-great-great-great grandparents, where we will play the drums, the mbiras, the marimbas, the Balotons, the Ouds, the shakers, the Koras, the bells, the violins, the tam-tams and the talking drums of our ancestors, dancing to the choreography they have sculpted us for. We will build academies where our remaining aged will come and recite for us their oral proficiencies withdrawn from the banks of their very lasting recalls of where our roots are still blooming.

We will build establishments where today’s old and new generations will go and learn of the Songhay empire, the Mali empire, the Ghana empire, Maphungubwe, Monomotapa, Mozambikhe, Khoi-San, Ituri, Dogon, Ashanti, Maasai, Peul, Igbo, Maninka, Nama, The Nile, the Zambezi, the Kalahari, the Congo, the history of Africa according to Africa.

We will build monuments for those who were massacred during the Atlantic crossings of slavery, those who were murdered for refusing to go West by force, for those who jumped overboard rather than land in New Orleans, South Carolina, Mississippi, Caribbean, Brazilian, South American, European slave markets. We will fashion conservatories wherein we shall bring back Louis Armstrong, King Olivier, Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith, Duke, Count, Ella, Sarah, Billie, Bird, Miles, Etta, Marvin, Sam Cooke, James Brown, Miriam Makeba, Franco, Fela, Ebenezer, Obeyi, Zakes Nkosi, Dorothy Masuku, Victor Ndlazilwane, The Manhattan Brothers, The Dark City Sisters, Lemmie Mabaso, Spokes Mashiyane, Dolly Rathebe, Ntemi Piliso, Samba, Bob Marley, Fela Kuti, Demba, Tabu Ley, Dumisani Maraire, Chiwoniso Lucky Dube, Kippie Moeketsi, Alan Silingan, Alpheus Nkosi, Kandia, Salif, Youssou and all the gods of our music. 

We will construct institutions where we will learn again our praise-poetry, where we will reclaim our names where the teaching of our ancient design, culture, cuisine, artisanship, sculptures, furniture, household goods, arts and crafts will be as accessible as iPads, computers, cell phones, apps, iPods television, radio and glossy magazines, where our presence on the aforementioned screens will be more frequent than the daily news, the wigs, the extensions, the skin lighteners and the urbanisation, and brainwashing of our psyches. We will be as visible as Victorian Falls, the Sahara, the Namibian Dunes, the Serengeti Plains, the Big Five and Kruger National Park. We will construct Museums where our art treasure will be in view, where our stolen artifact adorning European, Western and Asian Museums will tour the exhibition halls of our academies of heritage restoration. The world will sieve to fear the return of a universal Africa spanning the whole wide world and ushering in an era where our future generations will not say; “It is rumored that there used to be Africans long ago.”

We will not abandon the pursuit of learning about other cultures, albeit without mimicking or imitating them but we will have our own heritage as a mirror against them totally consuming us to the point that we conceive our own as savage, heathen, pagan, backward, barbaric or primitive. Yes!! We will zip up our boots and go back to our roots. We will be our original selves again where we will return to our own frontiers which were in place before the European invasion and colonisation.

It is then that we will cease to be manipulated into going into war over frontiers and countries that were decided through courtesy of the Kaiser of Germany in 1886. We shall let the world finally realise that who we are is not only harmless, but beautiful, educational and very civilising. That our society possesses the most diverse cross-section of cultural content in the world and that the time for its restoration is now, that its time has come. That is not to be feared for it is not a threat but a major asset to the possibility, the possibility of humanity being re-civilised back into an environment of peace and harmony. We shall achieve this dream, which Bantu Biko was crucified for and when we do, Bantu Biko will be smiling where he is, singing, dancing and living in us, with us for Africa. 

This was the Steve Biko Memorial Lecture, Europe, delivery by Mr. Hugh Masekela on 28 October 2014 at the London School of Economics.

Steve Biko Memorial Lecture, Europe, 2014

This story was accessed on LSE's Storify https://storify.com/LSEpublicevents/art-and-activism-reflections-on-the-anti-apartheid

Steve Biko Memorial Lecture, Europe, 2012

Black Consciousness, Black Theology, Student Activism and the Shaping of the New South Africa: by Barney Pityana

Any study of Steve Biko can never be complete without a reference to his approach to religion and the role of the church. What Steve Biko had to say about the church’s role in colonization was not new. Neither was his critique of the church during white minority rule and apartheid. It was at best hesitant but most likely implicit. He therefore sought to understand how Black people themselves could overwhelmingly advance a religious consciousness that was undermining their human dignity or that as not able to practice what it teaches. His approach was not a wholesale condemnation of religion and the church. Instead he drew from a long history of Christian resistance by Black post-missionary Christians to the hegemony and control of the church by European missionaries.

 For that he had some powerful examples in Nehemiah Tile and the Ethiopian Movement, in the apocalyptic millenarian movements of the Mgijimas and the Nazarites in Bullhoek, in John Colenso and the challenge of cultural interpretation of the Bible among the Zulus, and of the more contemporary mass indigenous churches of Shembe and Lekganyane, even to the manifestations of independent theological thought of the African indigenous churches of the Zionists, charismatic and healing churches.

It was evident that for many Africans the option was not to turn their backs on Christianity but to re-interpret and practice the Christian faith by taking account of African cultures, assert independence to and leadership by Africans and express the freedom to syncretise Christian practices with African culture and rituals. There was, therefore, a view that to attack Christianity especially and the church was bound to be alienating and would be counter-productive. Besides, it was understood that with the demise of the church a whole set of values and ethical positions necessary for constructing an ethic of resistance would be gone. A process of critical reconstruction of religion was then obvious. The effect was to build on the compelling nature of religion, but undergird it with an equally compelling culture that is of the essence of being African. This process produced a sensitive and respectful understanding of the beliefs and practices of others, and drew them into the liberatory circle.

In summary then, Steve Biko and Black Consciousness began from a curiosity about human experience,raised questions that had no answers, and perhaps would never have satisfactory finite answers. Next they had a theoretical foundation for their ntellectual quest, and finally they sought a liberatory praxis that gave effect to their ideals. What is clear is that Black Consciousness drew ideas from a wide spectrum of thought and practice: from African culture and traditions to European philosophy and modern revolutionary practice. The radical effect of drawing on the language of consciousness could easily be lost sight of. It was radical in that none of South Africa's liberation formations had used that language even though black consciousness could be traced back to the 1930s. It was radical in that it sought to find explanation for the pathetic state of resignation after conquest that was evident in the early 1960s. It was to give new life to the quest for liberation.

The 2014 Steve Biko Memorial Lecture, Europe, will be delivered by Mr. Hugh Masekela at the London School of Economics on the 23rd of October 2014.

The above was extracted from Barney Pityana's 2012, Steve Biko Memorial Lecture, Europe, address.

Friday Feature: Hugh Masekela Biography

Names: Masekela, Hugh

Born: 4 April 1939, Witbank, Mmpumalanga (then Eastern Transvaal), 

South Africa

In summary: Celebrated musician, singer, composer and trumpet player

Hugh Ramopolo Masekela was born on 4 April 1939 in Witbank, near Johannesburg. Masekela showed musical ability from a young age, and began to play the piano as a child. Inspired by the movie Young Man with a Horn, Masekela began to play the trumpet, encouraged by anti-apartheid activist Father Trevor Huddleston, who helped him acquire the instrument.

At Huddleston’s request, Masekela then received tuition in trumpet playing from Uncle Sauda, who played for the Johannesburg ‘Native’ Municipal Brass Brand. Masekela soon mastered the trumpet, and began to play with other aspiring musicians in the Huddleston Jazz Band – South Africa’s first youth orchestra.

In his early days as a teenager on the South African music scene, Masekela played with artists such as Dollar Brand (Abdullah Ibrahim), Jonas Gwangwa and Kippie Moeketsi. Masekela also collaborated with famous icons like Miriam Makeba, Zimbabwean Dorothy Masuka, Fela Anikulapo Kuti, Hedzoleh Soundz, Francis Fuster and Dudu Pukwana.

Masekela also formed an integral part of the orchestra for the South African Broadway-style musical King Kong, which was written by Todd Matshikiza. This took place after Masekela toured with the jazz band the Manhattan Brothers in 1958, and was even featured on London’s West End for two years. This successful musical featured many of the above-mentioned artists.

Masekela was deeply affected by his life experiences, and therefore made music that reflected his experiences in the harsh political climate of South Africa during the 1950s and 1960s. Masekela’s music therefore portrays the struggles and joys of living in South Africa, and voiced protest against slavery and discrimination.

After the Sharpeville Massacre, Masekela was assisted by Huddleston and other international friends to study in America. Therefore, in 1961, Masekela went into exile. Masekela went to study at the London Guildhall School of Music, and later the Manhattan School of Music, where he befriended Harry Belafonte.

Masekela went on to compose and record many new songs in New York; including his 1968 number one hit ‘Grazing in the Grass’. Masekela played primarily in jazz ensembles, like the Jazz Epistles, and successfully collaborated with international artists like The Byrds and Paul Simon.

In the 1980s, Masekela set up a mobile studio in Botswana, where he further developed his musical style using African mbaqanga strains. Masekela performed with Paul Simon on the Graceland tour, along with Ladysmith Black Mambazo. His 1987 hit ‘Bring Him Back Home’ became the anthem for Nelson Mandela's world tour, following his release from prison in 1992.

Masekela has also produced music for the musicals like Sarafina, and was featured in the 2003 documentary film Amandla! Masekela’s musical style continues to incorporate various African styles fused with jazz and funk, and has evolved into more of an adult contemporary style, which can be heard on his albums Techno-Bush, Tomorrow, Uptownship and Revival.

Masekela continues to produce music and tour extensively throughout the world, which recently included a 2007 tour to the USA and Canada to promote the live recording, "Hugh Masekela: Live at the Market Theatre". A Grammy award winner for “Best Contemporary Pop Performance-Instrumental” as far back as 1968, Masekela is still honoured today as one of South Africa’s most prominent and talented musicians.

Hugh Masekela will deliver the Steve Biko Memorial Lecture, Europe, at the London School of Economics on 23 October 2014. His delivery will focus on "Arts and Activism: Reflections on the Anti-Apartheid Struggle & Two Decades of South African Democracy".

Accessed on South African History Online Website http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/hugh-masekela on 10 October 2014.

Friday Feature: Black People's Convention (BPC)

The launch of the BPC at St Peter's Seminary, Hammanskraal, 8 February 1973. 

The Black People’s Convention (BPC) was an umbrella organisation of the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM). BCM had its origins in university campuses, mainly white, liberal universities. Many of the campaigns that were undertaken under its auspices were carried out by formations that embraced BPC’s Black Consciousness (BC) philosophy. The Pro-Frelimo rally staged by students at the University of the North and the historic student uprising in Soweto on 16 June 1976 were inspired by BPC and its BC philosophy. It is for this reason that many of the campaigns undertaken in the 1970s are associated with formations that fully recognised BPC and embraced its BC philosophy. Any account of campaigns involving these formations has to recognise and acknowledge the influence of BPC in this phase of the struggle against apartheid.

In the decade between the formation of the South African Students’ Organisation (SASO) in 1968 and the banning of all BCM formations in 1977, far-reaching changes had occurred on the political landscape. The guiding principles of non-racialism that defined the conduct of the struggle for liberation in the 1950s and 1960s were discarded and replaced by an approach that characterised whites as part of the problem. The Black Consciousness (BC) philosophy that BCM formations articulated and promoted was a distinct departure from the non-racial struggle of the 1950s and 1960s, whose guiding principle was enshrined in the Freedom Charter.

It appears that political activity can rarely be ascribed directly to BPC, which was banned in 1977. But BPC inspired the birth of other political formations focusing on specific aspects of resistance to and struggle against apartheid – one of these being the Black Community Programmes (BCP). BCP’s key objectives included promoting the social upliftment of Black people, enhancing their general literacy and economic self-reliance. For each of these aspects there was a need to establish a dedicated structure. With the BC philosophy becoming more clearly defined, various other formations, influenced by its set of ideas, were established.

In the period leading up to 1976 uprising, youth and students in Black townships were actively involved in youth and cultural clubs. At first these clubs promoted extra-mural activities like table tennis, dance clubs, choirs, and a range of leisure activities. But they were increasingly influenced by political ideas, and formed overtly political formations such as the National Youth Organisation (NAYO), which was reputed to have played a significant role in the outbreak of the Soweto students uprising.The South African Students Movement (SASM) was established in 1972. Inspired by the BC philosophy, SASM mobilised high school students. The Soweto branch of SASM formed an Action Committee, the Soweto Students Representative Council (SSRC), a body that conceived and organised the students’ uprising of 16 June 1976. Following the Soweto students uprising, the Black Parents Association (BPA) was formed and acted as a pressure group that intervened in the ongoing conflict between authorities and students. In 1977 a group of journalists formed the Union of Black Journalists (UBJ).

Between 1975 and 1977 other formations emerged, embracing the BC philosophy and critical of apartheid and racism in their midst. Medupi Writers Association became a cultural group, inspired by BC philosophy and engaged in poetry, arts, music and dance.  

The government’s first reaction to BCM came in 1973. Eight BCM leaders were banned and restricted to specific magisterial districts. Biko was restricted to King William’s Town, and he was instrumental in the establishment of the Zimele Trust Fund, established to help political prisoners and their dependants while they were incarcerated and providing a cushion for them once released and before they could find employment.

In the meantime, SASO and the newly-formed Black Allied Workers Union (BAWU) undertook numerous campaigns. In his speech during the graduation ceremony at the University of the North in 1972, Onkgopotse Abram Tiro launched a scathing attack on university management and government. Tiro was expelled from the University. He was offered a teaching post at Morris Isaacson School in Soweto, where he is reported to have inspired the formation of SASM. The Durban strikes of 1973, involving 40 000 workers, were coordinated by a range of organisations. The role of BAWU (an affiliate of BCP) in the strike remains uncertain. However, with a significant presence in Durban, it is unlikely that BAWU remained completely uninvolved in the strikes.  

The end of Portuguese rule in Angola and Mozambique in 1974 was an inspiration to students at universities across South Africa. Pro-Frelimo rallies were hosted by Students Representative Councils (SRCs). At the University of the North, the Pro-Frelimo rally was banned by management, but students defied the order and went ahead with the rally.In February 1973 eight BCM leaders were banned. All were either executive members of BPC or were involved with the organisation in various ways. Biko, forced to move to King William’s Town where he was restricted, helped establish the Eastern Cape branch of BCP. He worked in the BCP office until 1975, when a clause further prohibiting his movement was inserted into the banning order. He appeared in the SASO-BPC trial in May 1976 as a witness, and used the courtroom to articulate his BC philosophy in his now famous responses to defence attorney David Soggot.

Between August 1976 and March 1977 Biko was arrested several times for violating his banning order. The last arrest in August 1997 ended tragically when he was killed on 12 September 1977. No doubt his death left BPC and the entire BC movement rudderless. He was succeeded as President of BPC by Hlaku Rachidi.  A month later, BPC was one of 18 BCM formations to be banned.

Accessed on South African History Online Website http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/black-people%E2%80%99s-convention-bpc on 3 October 2014.

Steve Biko Tribute Poem by Rev. Micheal Weeder

This is a poem written and recited by Rev Michael Weeder, the Dean of St. George's Cathedral in Cape Town, on September 14th.

Born of Mathew and Alice 'Mamcete'; brother  

to Bukelwa and Khaya and Nobandile, the lastborn.
Death ambushed you on the road of your own Via Dolorosa:

The way of suffering beyond Nongqawuse’s place of sorrow
to where the surplus-city, Dimbaza, uncovered the secrets of evil.
And on a good day you danced like a Joburg kleva

from Ginsberg to Keiskammahoek and everyplace in-between
to where, finally, the handcuffs of Pretoria bound you
at a place just beyond Makana’s Kop. Biko,

our forever young, our courage when prophets
sought shelter in mansions of silence; Biko,
our pride when the dirt of propaganda kissed deception,

bowing our heads ‘neath the weight of shame. Biko,
they killed your body. And we wept at the sight of your dark,
bruised and beaten beauty.

And now. All over this forsaken Azania, you, like resurrection hymns,
like the promise of empty graves, like the sound of the marching poor –
you come singing our forgotten songs ...

Biko burnt bright
in the night of oppression.

Biko
falling
like
Walter Rodney,
like
Maurice Bishop
in the Spring
of our longing.

Blessed Biko
told
no lies.
Claimed
no truth
other than

that victory
shall come forth
from the heart
of the struggle
of the love
of the people.

Organised.

© Michael Weeder, Sunday 14 September 2014.

Friday Feature: Black Community Programmes (BCP)

Zanempilo Clinic 

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, after the banning of the ANC and PAC, the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) resuscitated the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa – at first through the establishment of the South African Students Organisation (SASO). Conscious of the limitations of a student-oriented organisation, the BCM subsequently developed a number of political and community organisations to widen the struggle and mobilise supporters from the wider black community. One such organisation,  was Black Community Programmes (BCP), which focused on community projects.

BCP and the Black Consciousness Movement

The BCP developed out of one aspect of the BCM’sphilosophy – engaging in welfare work and programmes of self-help run by Blacks for Blacks. Steve Biko, as one of the founders of the BCM, was heavily involved in the running of BCP, which he joined in August 1972 after quitting his medical studies at the University of Natal. He described the rationale behind the organisation as

“…essentially to answer [the] problem…that the Black man is a defeated being who finds it very difficult to lift himself up by his bootstrings. He is alienated…He is made to live all the time concerned with matters of existence, concerned with tomorrow…Now, we felt that we must attempt to defeat and break this kind of attitude and instill once more a sense of dignity within the Black man. So what we did was to design various types of programs, present these to the Black community with an obvious illustration that these are done by the Black people for the sole purpose of uplifting the Black community. We believed that we teach people by example”.

The launch of the Black People’s Convention (BPC) early in 1973 added a political wing to the BC movement to complement the activities of BCP and SASO. Thus within the BCM there was a clear ‘division of labour’ – the BPC was the ‘adult’ political body, SASO the student body and the BCP the community projects arm.

Although Biko was involved with BCP from its beginning, he was also, together with Barney Pityana and others, running SASO. After he was banned in March 1973 and restricted to King William’s Town, BCP became Biko’s main outlet for political activity. Although the state prohibited him from involvement with SASO, it at first failed to realise that BCP was a fully-fledged BC organisation, and Biko was able to take up a position as regional director in King William’s Town. Biko quickly gathered a few trusted comrades around him: Malusi Mpumlwana, Mapetla Mohapi, Thoko Mbanjwa, Mxolisi Mvovo, Biko’s sister Nobandile, and NohleHaya, who became Biko’s administrative assistant.

Thenjiwe Mtintso, who eventually joined Umkhonto we Sizwe, later painted a picture of life in King William’s Town: ‘When we built that community, around Steve, around King William’s Town, it really made us. It really made the good parts of me. We were building together, we were fumbling along starting so many things together, and that made us. And that created the political discipline that we think we have.’ 

One of BCP’s most important projects was the production and dissemination of Black journals and community newspapers, leading to a revival of cultural, political and literary activity. Through Ravan Press, established by Spro-cas and the Christian Institute to publish struggle literature, the BC annual, titled Black Review, was published from 1972 to 1976.

Biko, together with Thoko Mbanjwa and a small team, was the prime mover behind these publications, which sought to correct the distorted representation of the Black community as passive and incapable of intellectual production. But by the time the 1972 review was published in 1973, Biko had been banned, and the book listed its editor as Bennie Khoapa, but was dedicated to Biko and Bokwe Mafuna, who had also been banned in March 1973. Mbanjwa went on to edit the 1974-5 edition, while the 1976-77 edition was edited by Asha Rambally after Mbanjwa was banned.

Other occasional journals, such as Creativity in Development and Black Perspectives, as well as Black Viewpoint, were also published. In trying to reflect work being done in Black communities, BCP carried out a countrywide survey of Black organisations, and in 1973 it published a directory of 70 of these organisations.

BCP was also heavily involved in training and youth development projects, a side of the organisation that eventually yielded events of massive significance. Biko clearly understood the need to have people available to replace cadres who might be banned by the state and, together withSASO’s national organiser Harry Nengwekhulu, he ran leadership seminars from mid-1972 until the pair were banned.

Biko and Nengwekhulu created the National Youth Organisation, an umbrella body for regional youth organisations, as well as the South African Student Movement (SASM), which organised Student Representative Committees at high schools, the most famous of these being the Soweto SRC, which organised the June 1976 uprising.

One of the more enduring structures established as a BCP initiative was the Zanempilo Community Health Centre. Situated in Zinyoka, 10km outside King William’s Town, it opened in January 1975 and was one of the first primary healthcare initiatives outside the public sector in South Africa and provided much needed community health education. However, the centre was not solely a health facility, it became a meeting point and a training ground for activists, a place where the community could gather to discuss issues, but also a place for joy and celebration, an example of the communal life that Biko and Pityana had spoken about.

The success of the Zanempilo project led to a similar establishment on the south coast of Natal, named Solempilo (Eye of Health), but the ban on BC organisations in 1977 put an end to the project.

Church organisations assisted BCP with many of its programmes but BCP in turn assisted in running church programmes. In May 1972 BCP sponsored a church conference which focused on developing a more effective and Black-oriented preaching of the Gospel. On the basis of this the ‘Black Theology Agency’ was formed in February 1973 at another BCP-sponsored conference. The establishment and funding of the Zimele Trust Fund was another way political activists and religious figures worked together.

In line with the project to promote self-reliance, BCP was involved in building schools, clinics and day-care centres across the country, and set up home-based industries and cooperatives in many rural areas. Cottage industries producing leather goods were set up in Zinyoka, Njwaxa and Norwood, all villages near King William’s Town, and later in Cape Town.

When the leatherwork project proved successful, women in Zinyoka were tasked with finishing the leather. Demand grew and MxolisiMvovo became a fulltime salesman for the goods. So successful was the enterprise that a new building was erected next to the Zanempilo clinic to facilitate production of the leather goods.

In March 1973, barely a year after its inception, the BCP Johannesburg Branch Executive, Bokwe Mafuna, and the King William’s Town Branch Executive, Steve Biko, were banned. Biko’s restriction order was later widened to halt his BCP activities. These were followed in August by further restrictions placed on Sam Moodley (Programme Assistant at the Durban office), Bennie Khoapa (the Director of BCP) – who was restricted to the Umlazi magisterial district, and Malusi Mpumlwana, Programme Assistant at the King William’s Town Branch (Black Community Programmes, n.d.). By 1974 more than 20 BCM activists were banned, many of whom were involved in the BCP.

This was the beginning of a police investigation into BCP, the Christian Institute and allied organisations, all of which were implicated in what the police deemed ‘a programme for radical change in South Africa’. Thus on 19 October 1977, a month after the death of Biko, the security police shut down the BCP and all other BCM associated bodies. These bodies were declared illegal and many of their members received banning orders.

Accessed on South African History Online website on http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/black-community-programmes-bcp on 26 September 2014.

South African Student Organisation (SASO)

The South African Student Organisation (SASO) was formed in 1968 after some members of the University of Natal’s Black Campus SRC (Student Representative Council) decided to break away from the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). NUSAS was a liberal organisation dominated by White students. When it was formed in 1924, it was an exclusively White student body that represented student interests. In the 1960s White members became sympathetic to the Black students cause. As a result, Black students membership began to increase. Many of these students, the majority of whom were based at the University of Natal, became increasingly dissatisfied with the inability of NUSAS to tackle deep racist structures and policies of both the government and universities.

One incident in particular, sparked the break away. In the period 1967-68 Steve Biko, a medical student at Natal University, was one of the students who began to analyze and criticise the unhealthy political situation in the country. At Wentworth, Natal University’s medical school for Blacks, Biko was elected to the Student’s Representative Council (SRC), and in 1967, attended a conference of students that was critical of the government. Primarily because NUSAS was dominated by whites, Rhodes University, the conference host, refused to allow mixed-race accommodation or eating facilities. Reacting angrily to the incident, Biko slated the incomplete integration of student politics under the existing system and dismissed talk of liberalism as an empty gesture by Whites who really wished to maintain the status quo and keep Blacks as second-rate citizens.

The formation of SASO was preceded and influenced by the formation of the University Christian Movement(UCM) in 1967. UCM was an inter-denominational religious movement that allowed students from different universities to meet on a regular basis. It was influenced by Black Theology that taught religion from an oppressed person’s perspective. Liberation theology sought to transform society into a just and fraternal society. The aim of black theology was to inspire Black people to realise equality with White people and that their Blackness and inferiority was not a punishment nor a condition created by God. The UCM accepted these teachings as relevant for Black South Africans and important for their liberation. Despite its orientation towards Black Theology, Steve Biko and his circle of associates were not content with the UCM. They observed that the UCM was reinforcing the inferior status of Black people by having a large number of White people in their leadership structures, even though the majority of its members were Black.

Subsequently, in 1968 during a UCM meeting, Black students formed a black caucus that resolved that there was a need to form an exclusively Black student organisation. The caucus then decided that a conference for Black students should be organised. The conference, which was attended by thirty members from various SRCs from Black universities, was held at Marianhill, Natal. The conference saw the birth of SASO. The following year in July 1969 SASO had its inaugural conference which was held at the University of the North near Pietersburg (now Polokwane). At this conference Steve Biko was elected its first President and students from the University of Natal played a pivotal role in the formation of this student structure. 

The decision to break away from NUSAS was also motivated largely by the emergence of Black Consciousness (BC) - founded by Steve Biko. BC was a new philosophy influenced by the development of “Black Theology” among the University of Natal Black students. The Black Consciousness Movement that Biko founded rejected the notion that whites could play a role in the liberation of Blacks. “The main thing was to get black people to articulate their own struggle and reject the white liberal establishment from prescribing to people,” said Barney Pityana (Biko’s friend).

Biko and his colleagues felt Blacks needed to learn to speak for themselves. In fact, as Pityana recalled, for white students, “NUSAS was a nice friendly club, another game you played while at university. Then you grew out of it,” but for Biko and other black students, NUSAS was not militant enough. Other liberal organisations like some churches were not open to blacks either. For Example, at a non-racial church conference, which Biko attended, white participants discouraged blacks from defying restrictions of the Group Areas Act, which limited Blacks to 72 hours in a white area. Being told how students should act annoyed Biko very much. It also underlined the extent to which Black South Africans were isolated even in the churches.

Accessed on South African History site http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/south-african-student-organisation-saso on 19 September 2014.